When Shakespeare was alive going to the theatre was a lot different than it is now Essay Example For Students

When Shakespeare was alive going to the theatre was a lot different than it is now Essay When Shakespeare was alive going to the theatre was a lot different than it is now, You didnt get fancy seats, If you had a bit of money you might have a seat if your lucky but most people would stand up. It was a very social event so it was very noisy, It would have been like going to a modern day concert. Straw would be laid down on the floor because people would throw up and urinate on the floor. There was no curtain and no lights to dim so to let people know that the play was going to start. So Shakespeare had to catch the audiences attention another way. We will write a custom essay on When Shakespeare was alive going to the theatre was a lot different than it is now specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now In Romeo and Juliet the prologue does this very well. Almost straight away, by the sixth line in fact, everybody knows that both Romeo and Juliet commit suicide. The prologue uses words like blood, fatal and death, which interest people. It tells the audience about how the two families were old enemies. So it is immediately obvious that it will be difficult for Romeo and Juliet to tell any one about their love for each other. It mentions star-crossed lovers which implies that their love is doomed right from the beginning. Because Romeo and Juliet couldnt tell people about their love and their marriage the play is full of dramatic irony. All the way through the audience knows something that the actors dont. (There wouldnt have been actresses in then). For instance when Tybalt challenges Romeo to a duel, but Romeo wont fight because Tybalt is his cousin by marriage, the audiences know this but Tybalt doesnt. Also when lady Capulet is talking to Juliet after Tybalt has been killed, and Romeo has been exiled, Juliet is crying because Romeo was exiled, But her mother thinks that she is grieving for the death of her cousin. If after the prologue people in the audience still werent watching the play Shakespeare has made sure that act 1 scene 1 grabs there attention. It shows a massive fight between the two families in the street. The fight isnt even started by family members but by the servants, which shows just how great the hate between them is. Right from the beginning of the play you know that Romeo has no problem with loving a Capulet. Which shows how he doesnt think of the consequences, Falling in love with the enemy is obviously going to cause problems. In act 1 scene 1 he is talking to Benvolio about how depressed he is about Rosaline not loving him out of her favour where I am in love is how he describes it. He is really over the top about being upset, he walks around at night and during the day he locks him self in his room he makes himself an artificial night. But as soon as he sees Juliet all thoughts of Rosaline disappear. This shows how flippant he is as he just immediately forgets this woman who only a few hours earlier he had been so depressed about. Juliet is the same after only knowing Romeo for a few hours she asks him to marry her. Which indicates that she has a tendency to do things on the spare of the moment and doesnt think things through, Although in the back of her mind she is probably thinking about her parents wanting her to marry Paris. So she sees an opportunity to get out of it and to experience life the way she wants. For a thirteen-year-old girl she has a lot of courage. After the fight with her parents over her marriage to Paris she is left completely on her own, and although she wants to kill herself she does go and talk to the friar first. If she had really wanted to kill herself she would have just done it. .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 , .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 .postImageUrl , .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 , .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1:hover , .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1:visited , .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1:active { border:0!important; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1:active , .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1 .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u66463e70fc78ae4346699415879ef5e1:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Tess of the D'Urbervilles EssayRomeo does the same thing after he has killed Tybalt. He says Ha banishment be merciful say death for exile hath more terror in his look much more than death, Do not say banishment this is one of the many ways that Shakespeare shows the ineffability of there love ending in tragedy In Elizabethan times (when Shakespeare was alive) it was usual for girls to marry young, and for their parents to arrange who they would marry for them. If a woman wanted to better herself and her family was to marry somebody richer than her. Love didnt have much to do with it. So it wasnt unusual that Juliets parents wanted her to marry Paris. But as they dont know that she has already married Romeo there is a lot of dramatic irony going on, the audience know that she cant merry Paris but her parents think that she is just being awkward. Capulet gets extremely angry with this. He has brought the wedding forward in the first place to cheer Juliet up because he thought she was grieving for her cousins death. But really she is upset because Romeo has been exiled (more dramatic irony)

Psychology Questions †25 Points Each

Psychology Questions – 25 Points Each Free Online Research Papers PSYC 103 Organizational Studies/Psychology 103 Take Home Exam 3 Answer Question 1-4 (25 Points Each) 1. Many researchers are concerned about the possible effects that violent video games might have on our society. Some believe that it may have a cathartic effect, while others believe just the opposite. Describe the possible effects as they relate to classic theories (e.g., catharsis and modeling), and discuss research evidence that addresses this question. In relation to this, what does the study by Bandura, Ross, and Ross (1961) demonstrate (besides my liking of bobo dolls)? What implications does this work have for us in the areas of socialization, TV programming, and the marketing of video games? The affects on childrens behavior from violent video games is a newly, well-researched topic for social psychologists. Violent video games are giving our children the practice and experience needed to act out these aggressive behaviors in the real world. There is a common misconception that playing violent video games are a catharsis, allowing children to release their anger in a non-aggressive manner. Some psychologists even encourage aggressive play as a way to release emotional tension (Myers, 2008, p. 375). But Brad Bushman (2002) notes that â€Å"Venting to reduce anger is like using gasoline to put out a fire.† The near consensus among social psychologists is that viewing or participating in violence fails to produce catharsis (Geen and Quanty, 1977). Alienated, disaffected youths, Dylan Klebold and Eric Harris, vented their anger to get famous by shooting up their school. On April 20, 1999 at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, these two young men carried out a shooting rampage. They killed twelve fellow students and a teacher, as well as wounding twenty-four others, before committing suicide. It is considered to be the deadliest school shooting, and the second deadliest attack on a school in US History (DeGaetano, 1999). Both of these boys were drowning in a violent pop culture of bloody movies and video games. High on the morning of April 20, 1999, before the massacre, Dylan and Eric filmed their own back story videos, explaining their aims and motives. Its going to be like f**king Doom! Harris said on one of the tapes, referring to his favorite shoot-em-up video game. Tick-tock, tick, tick Ha! Straight out of Doom! (Steyer, 2002). These two young boys had played this game very often and were so used to the vio lence of killing innocent people with no remorse. They gained the experience and knowledge from this video game on how to kill other human beings while getting a sense of satisfaction. A direct link between violent video games and increasing rates of violence among children happened in Paducah, Kentucky. A fourteen-year-old boy, Michael Carneal, steals a gun from a neighbors house, brings it to school, and fires eight shots into a student prayer meeting that is breaking up. Prior to stealing the gun, he had never shot a real handgun in his life. The FBI says that the average experienced law enforcement officer, in the average shootout, at an average range of seven yards, hits with approximately one bullet in five. So how many hits did Michael Carneal make? He fired eight shots; he got eight hits, on eight different kids. Five of them were headshots, and the other three were upper torso. The result was three dead and one paralyzed for life. Nowhere in law enforcement or military history can an equivalent achievement be found. And these from a boy on his first try. How did Michael Carneal acquire this kind of killing ability? Simple: practice. At the age of fourteen he had practiced killing thousands of people. His simulators were point-and-shoot video games he played for hundreds of hours in video arcades and in the comfort of his own home. His superhuman accuracy, combined with the fact that he stood still, firing two handed, and firing only one shot at each target, are all behaviors that are completely unnatural to either trained or native shooters, behaviors that could only have been learned in a video game. If you do not think these games resemble the real thing, you should know that the military and law enforcement communities use video marksmanship training simulators to supplement their training. As a player in the video game your goal is simply to rack up the highest score as quickly as possible. And, many of the video games (such as House of the Dead, Golden-eye, or Turock) give bonus effects for headshots while in â€Å"Grand Theft Auto† you are invited to play a psychopath (Gentile, 2004). These kind of video games provide the motor reflexes responsible for over 75% of the firing on the modern battlefield. In addition, they provide violent suggestions and reinforcement for violent behavior. These games teach young people to kill with all the precision of a military training program, but none of the character training that goes along with it (Gerdes, 2004). For children who get the right training at home and who have the ability to distinguish between real and unreal consequences, they are still games. But for children who are especially vulnerable to the lure of violence, they can be far more. Even more than violent television and movies, violent video games have been shown to increase aggression among those who play them. It seems as if even a brief exposure to these games can temporarily increase ones aggressiveness. Researchers stated that Violent video games provide a forum for learning and practicing aggressive solutions to conflict situations. New aggression-related scripts can become more and more accessible for use when real-life conflict situations arise (Steyer, 2002). One study reveals that young men who are habitually aggressive may be especially vulnerable to the aggression-enhancing effects of repeated exposure to violent games (Anderson and Bushman, 2002). Violent video games have stronger effects on childrens aggression because the games are highly appealing and interactive. The games are reward violent behavior. The more often children rehearse violent acts; the more likely they are to commit them in real life. This was demonstrated by Albert Bandura’s (1977) famous Bobo doll experiment. In 1961 Bandura conducted a controversial experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment, to study patterns of behavior associated with aggression (Myers, 2008, p. 353). Bandura hoped that the experiment would prove that aggression can be explained, at least in part, by social learning theory. Social learning theory is the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished for our behaviors. Bandura believed that our behaviors are learned by individuals modeling their own behavior after the actions of others. The experiment was criticized by some on ethical grounds, for training children towards aggression. In this experiment three groups of children saw a film which showed the adult attacking an inflatable doll with a stick. The doll was thrown across the room, sat on, punched and kicked. Bandura provided three alternative endings to the film: Group A Saw only the doll being hit. Group B Saw the adult being praised and rewarded for hitting the doll. Group C Saw the adult being punished for hitting the doll. When the children had seen the film, they were given the same doll. Bandura observed their behavior which showed that groups A and B imitated the aggressive behavior they had witnessed, while group C were less aggressive. Banduras results from the Bobo Doll Experiment changed the course of modern psychology, and were widely credited for helping shift the focus in academic psychology from pure behaviorism to cognitive psychology (Bandura, 1979). There can be intense psychological effects from playing interactive video games. Recent research has begun to find connections between childrens playing of violent video games and later aggressive behavior. A research review done by the National Coalition on Television Violence found that 9 of 12 research studies on the impact of violent video games on normal children and adolescents reported harmful effects. Playing violent video games like Doom, Wolfenstein 3D or Mortal Combat can increase a persons aggressive thoughts, feelings and behavior both in laboratory settings and in actual life, according to two studies. Furthermore, violent video games may be more harmful than violent television and movies because they are interactive, very engrossing and require the player to identify with the aggressor, say the researchers. Psychologists Anderson, and Bushman (2002) noted that One study reveals that young men who are habitually aggressive may be especially vulnerable to the aggression-enhancing effects of repeated exposure to violent games. The other study reveals that even a brief exposure to violent video games can temporarily increase aggressive behavior in all types of participants. The first study involved 227 college students who completed a measure of trait aggressiveness and reported their actual aggressive behaviors (delinquency) in the recent past. They also reported their vide o game playing habits. We found that students who reported playing more violent video games in junior and high school engaged in more aggressive behavior, said lead author Anderson. We also found that amount of time spent playing video games in the past was associated with lower academic grades in college. In the second study, 210 college students played either a violent (Wolfenstein 3D) or nonviolent video game (Myst). A short time later, the students who played the violent video game punished an opponent (received a noise blast with varying intensity) for a longer period of time than did students who had played the nonviolent video game. Violent video games provide a forum for learning and practicing aggressive solutions to conflict situations, said Dr. Anderson. In the short run, playing a violent video game appears to affect aggression by priming aggressive thoughts. Longer-term effects are likely to be longer lasting as well, as the player learns and practices new aggress ion-related scripts that can become more and more accessible for use when real-life conflict situations arise. One major concern is the active nature of the learning environment of the video game, say the authors. This medium is potentially more dangerous than exposure to violent television and movies, which are known to have substantial effects on aggression and violence (Anderson Bushman, 2002). Violent video games can increase aggressive behavior in children and adolescents, both in the short- and long-term, according to an empirical review of the last 20 years of research. These findings are presented at the 113th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association in Washington, DC. According to researchers Jessica Nicoll, B.A., and Kevin M. Kieffer, Ph.D., of Saint Leo University, youth who played violent video games for a short time experienced an increase in aggressive behavior following the video game. One study showed participants who played a violent game for less than 10 minutes rate themselves with aggressive traits and aggressive actions shortly after playing. In another study of over 600 8th and 9th graders, the children who spent more time playing violent video games were rated by their teachers as more hostile than other children in the study. The children who played more violent video games had more arguments with authority figures and were more l ikely to be involved in physical altercations with other students. They also performed more poorly on academic tasks. Violent video game players tend to imitate the moves that they just acted out in the game they played, said Dr. Kieffer. For example, children who played violent karate games duplicated this type of behavior while playing with friends. These findings demonstrate the possible dangers associated with playing this type of video game over and over again. The authors also found that boys tend to play video games for longer periods of time than girls. Boys may play more of these types of video games, said Kieffer, because women are portrayed in subordinate roles and the girls may find less incentive to play. But those girls who did play violent video games, according to the review, were more likely to prefer playing with an aggressive toy and were more aggressive when playing. The observational studies looking at childrens free play, tended to show that children become more aggressive after either playing or observing a violent video game. The children have increased heart rate and their blood pressure rises and they have an increase in both aggressive feelings and behaviors (Myers, 2008, p. 369). At a theoretical level, these evidences suggest empirical data supporting the social learning theory. When age was look at it was discovered that age played no significant part in determining if a player was affected by the content of video games or not. The difference of age showed up in the manifestation of its affect. Violent video games are giving our children the practice and experience needed to act out these aggressive behaviors in the real world (Bartholow others, 2005). The social learning approach suggests controlling aggression can by done by counteracting the factors that provoke it; by reducing averse stimulation, by rewarding and modeling nonaggression, and by eliciting reactions incompatible with aggression (Myers, 2008, p. 378). Stanford University used 18 classroom lessons to persuade children to reduce their TV watching and violent video game playing by a third. Their aggressive behavior dropped 25 percent compared with children in a control school (Robinson others, 2001). In short we should not play them ourselves and we should not allow our children to play them. There are so many better alternatives for free time than violent video games. 2. What factors determine attraction and do they change over time in a relationship? Discuss the variables that psychologists have studied, and state why each might be important in determining interpersonal attraction. What possible personal, temporal, and situational variables moderate the effects of these factors? What difficulties and limitations to these studies possess? (Bonus Question for 5 points: How are liking and loving related? Are they quantitatively or qualitatively different?) There are four different factors that cause an attraction, which are proximity, physical attractiveness, a similarity between each attitudes and beliefs they hold, and reciprocal liking. Living near someone is likely to encourage attraction. Despite the prevalence of online social networks, it is difficult to form a relationship with someone who is not physically nearby. But research conducted by Moreland and Zajonc (1982), demonstrates single people are also more likely to date and marry someone with whom they share proximity. Whether in class, at church, or at the gym, people are likely to be attracted to others they see regularly. Individuals who are near are certainly more available, but studies by Moreland and Beach (1992) show repeated exposure to new stimuli increases the chances they are liked, a phenomenon known as the mere exposure effect. Lisa DeBruines (2004) study demonstrated people even show a preference for faces that are similar to their own, rating faces with their own features morphed into them as more attractive than others that did not share their features. Evolutionarily speaking, what is familiar is likely to be safe. Attraction to those who were near served an adaptive purpose for our ancestors as foreign stimuli was more likely dangerous. Physical attractiveness is a key element of attraction, despite many people claiming physical features do not play a part in whom they choose as a mate. Belot and Francesconi (2006) show physical attraction influences first impressions and seems to be the most important determinant in whether two people on a first date will like each other. Attractive people enjoy the benefit of being perceived healthier and happier. Research by Cash and Janda (1984) concludes attractive people are also more likely to have higher incomes and enjoy more occupational success. People of a certain level of attractiveness seem to date and marry another of the same level of attractiveness, an idea called the matching hypothesis. Couples of similar attractiveness are perceived to be generally happier and more satisfied than couples of differing levels of attractiveness (Myers, 2008). Men across cultures rate women as more attractive if they have a youthful look. Men prefer youthful features because they signify reproductive capacity (Buss, 1989). Women tend to be attracted to men who appear healthy, especially if they are perceived as mature, affluent, and dominant. Women also prefer a male hip to waist ratio suggesting health and vigor, and during ovulation they show heightened preference for men with masculinized features. These preferences are rooted in evolution. For men, youthfulness would indicate fertility, while women are attracted to traits that would create a resourceful mate who would remain with her to protect and support their offspring (Gangestad and Simpson, 2000). Popular sayings suggest that opposites attract, but studies by Byrne (1971) show that couples actually do share many similar interests. People tend to be in relationships with individuals who are similar in age and social class. Men and women also tend to be similar to their mates in race, religion, educational attainment, attitudes, values, and intelligence. Research indicates the more alike people are, the longer their liking will last (Byrne, 1971). People also tend to like political candidates who have similar personality traits perceived in themselves (Caprara et al., 2007). Men and women tend to like individuals who like them in return, an idea called reciprocal liking. The reward theory of attraction takes a more economical approach. The reward theory states people will like someone as long as the benefit received from liking them is greater than the cost. A relationship will form so long as the rewards are greater than the costs. Though there are many ideas of how attraction is created, science and psychological research indicates attraction primarily consists of proximity, physical attractiveness, similarity and reciprocal liking. Now after these four factors come in to play, eventually attraction overtime turns into love. Love consists of two different types; temporary passionate love and a more enduring companionate love (Myers, 2008, p. 385). Passionate love is â€Å"an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship,† and compassionate love is â€Å"the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those whit whom our lives are intertwined.† Love expresses the equality between each person and complete disclosure of one’s self to the other, complete trust (Myers, 2008, p. 390). Interpersonal attraction is increased by physical proximity (nearness), frequent contact, physical attractiveness, competence, and similarity. A large degree of similarity on many dimensions is characteristic of mate selection Self-disclosure occurs more when two people like one another. Self-disclosure follows a reciprocity norm: Low levels of self-disclosure are met with low levels in return, whereas moderate self-disclosure elicits more personal replies. However, overdisclosure tends to inhibit self-disclosure by others. According to social exchange theory, we tend to maintain relationships that are profitable – that is, those for which perceived rewards exceed perceived costs. Romantic love has been studied as a special kind of attitude. Love can be distinguished from liking by the use of attitude scales. Dating couples like and love their partners but only like their friends. Love is also associated with greater mutual absorption between people. Adult love relationships tend to mirror patterns of emotional attachment observed in infancy and early childhood. Secure, avoidant, and ambivalent patterns can be defined on the basis of how a person approaches romantic and affectionate relationships with others. Evolutionary psychology attributes human mating patterns to the differing reproductive challenges faced by men and women since the dawn of time. 3. What factors go into our decision to help others or to behave in an altruistic fashion? Discuss and contrast social exchange and evolutionary views of helping. Describe Latanà © and Darleys decision tree, and use it to illustrate situational and personal influence. If you fall down at the mall while shopping for fireworks, what actions should you take to increase the likelihood of bystander intervention? Altruism is a subcategory of helping behavior, and refers to an act that is motivated by the desire to benefit another rather than oneself (Batson Coke, 1981; Berkowitz, 1970). The main issue with determining whether a helping act is truly altruistic is one of motivation; if we cannot determine whether an act stems from a desire to benefit others or some kind of ulterior motive, altruism is difficult to demonstrate (Rushton Sorrentino, 1981). The Empathy-Altruism hypothesis, rejects the claim that no behavior is ‘really’ altruistic. There are opposing theories of egoism such as negative state relief, reciprocity and social responsibility, and Latanà © and Darleys decision tree also factors in. Gaertner and Dovidio (1977) commented that it is likely that empathy motivates us to help others. Batson, Duncan, Ackerman, Buckley and Birch (1981) developed this by suggesting that feeling empathy for a person in need is an important motivator of helping and hypothesized that this motivation might be truly altruistic. Batson et al. (1981) experimentally tested this hypothesis by having subjects watch another person receive electric shocks and then giving the subject the chance to help by taking the remaining shocks themselves The experiment concluded that empathic emotion does evoke altruistic motivation to see anothers need reduced. This empathy-altruism hypothesis had significant theoretical implications because it contradicted the more widely accepted theories of egoism, which are built on the assumption that everything we do is ultimately directed toward the end-state goal of benefiting ourselves (Batson et al. 1981). Latanà © and Darleys decision tree outlines a path that a person will follow before they decide whether or not to help someone. The first step is ‘Notice the incident?’, if it is a ‘No’ then no help will be given. As we discussed in class the example of the seminary students going off to give a sermon on the the Good Samaritan sometimes jumped over a person in distress not noticing them because they thought that they were late (Darley and Batson, 1973). If it is a ‘Yes’ you continue up the tree. The second step is ‘Interpret as emergency?’, we might see someone laying in the street but if we think they are sleeping or drunk we will not stop and call for help. If it is a ‘No’ then no help is given, if it is a ‘Yes’ then take the next step up the tree. The third step is ‘Assume Responsibility?’, if this is a ‘No’ then no help will be given. As demonstrated in the Latanà © and Darle y experiment where they pushed smoke into a room with a person working alone they reported the smoke quicker than when there was a group of three working in the same room. No one wanted to take responsibility hoping or assuming one of the others would (Latanà © and Darley, 1970). If the answer to assume responsibility is a ‘Yes’ then help will finally be given after going through all the steps on the decision tree. The empathy-altruism hypothesis comments that motivation for helping may be a mixture of altruism and egoism (Batson et al. 1981). Batson, Early and Salvarini, (1997) developed on this idea with their study that showed imagining how another feels produces empathy (leading to altruistic motivation), while actively imagining how you would feel produces both empathy and self-orientated distress (leading to mixture of altruistic and egotistic motivations). For example, if we help a drunk on the street because we understand how they feel, the behavior is altruistic, but if we also imagine how we might feel, the behavior is not ‘really’ altruistic. It therefore depends on the perspective of the person offering help, as to whether or not the behavior is ‘really’ altruistic. The first of the egoistic theories that challenges the altruism notion is Cialdinis negative-state relief model (Cialdini, Baumann, Kenrick, 1981). It suggests that individuals who experience empathy when witnessing another persons suffering are in a negative affective state (one of temporary sadness or sorrow) and that these individuals help in order to relieve this negative state. Cialdini argued that his experiments in 1987 supported this egoistic (negative-state relief model) interpretation over a selfless (empathy-altruism model) interpretation of helping behavior. As a counter to this, Batson et al. (1981) argue that if personal gain (e.g. feelings of personal satisfaction or relief) is an unintended by-product and not the goal of the behavior, then the behavior is ‘really’ altruistic. Another egoistic theory is one aspect of the social learning theory; from early childhood we are exposed to helping models and are taught social norms. Two social norms particularly relevant to the motivation of helping behaviors are reciprocity and social responsibility (Berkowitz, 1972). As an example, a helping behavior may be motivated by a desire for favorable treatment from another in the future (reciprocity), or they may feel a social obligation to help because they have learnt to help others in distress (social responsibility). As with the negative-state relief model, this theory suggests that helping behavior is not motivated purely by the desire to benefit others, and as such is not ‘really’ altruistic. Reciprocity as a social norm should not be confused with ‘reciprocal altruism’ theory, which ultimately involves a reciprocal element even though the initial altruistic act was to one’s expense (Trivers, 1971). Piliavin (1981) suggests that a series of calculations are made prior to any act of helping behavior by a bystander; culminating in an evaluation of the cost of helping versus the cost of not helping. By inference, if there is a cost associated with not helping, no bystander behavior can be called ‘really’ altruistic in view of this model. This model has a strong flavor of Social Exchange Theory (Myers, 2008, p. 429), which argues that we assess costs and benefits before deciding to help. For example, even if you act to help at cost to yourself, your action was a selfish one because you weighed up the cost before acting. It could be argued that both these theories can be applied to any situation if one were to analyze it enough, in effect these theories are self-fulfilling. The main issue with determining whether a helping act is truly altruistic is one of motivation. Although neither theory takes into account issues such as personality traits, cultural or religious values, the opposing theories of empathy-altruism hypothesis and egoism both produce convincing accounts and consistent experimental evidence to support their own claims. Based on these claims, I believe that helping behavior is a combination of altruistic and egoistic motivation because even though we may act in a selfless manner, at a subconscious level we could be driven by egoistic motivation. We want to feel better by helping someone and to remove feelings of guilt. Dovidio et al. (1990) investigated altruistic versus egoistic interpretation of empathic concern on helping and concluded with â€Å"An important step in resolving the current theoretical debate concerning the existence of altruism may involve reaching common methodological ground†. If you did happen to fall down while shopping for fireworks one way you can increase your chances is to call out for help specifically to a single-person. â€Å"You in the blue shirt, call 911, I broke my ankle!† People are more likely to assume responsibility when the request is made directly to them (Darley and Latanà ©, 1968). Also making the request to someone who looks similar to yourself or is wearing the same team jersey as you can also help increase your chances of receiving aid as Levine, Prosser and Evans (2005) demonstrated with their in-group experiments of English soccer fans. 4. What are the prisoners’ dilemma and the tragedy of the commons, and how do these dilemmas help social scientists understand conflict? As experimental simulations, are they applicable to human behavior in general? Discuss the ways that we can resolve the social dilemmas, and present the method that you feel is most effective (be sure to fully justify your choice). The Prisoner’s Dilemma game is a type of game in which two players can cooperate or betray the other player. The example in Myers textbook is two prisoner’s are questioned separately. If prisoner A confesses and prisoner B doesn’t, the DA will grant immunity to A and convict B of a maximum sentence (and vice-versa if B confesses and A doesn’t). If both confess, each will receive a moderate sentence. If neither confesses, each will be given a light sentence (Myers, 2008, p. 469). But how does one prisoner trust that the other will not betray him? Garret Hardin (1968) developed a social dilemma involving more than two parties called the Tragedy of the Commons. Hardin explains that commons are resources shared by the society as a whole with access to that commons without restrictions. Those are resources with maximum capacity and limit to support its usage. In his example on the herdsman, Hardin demonstrated the irrational behavior and unethical thinking of an individual for his own advantage to increase his demands on the commons. The result of this absurdity in behavior and unethical thinking maximized the capacity and consumption limit of that commons thus everyone who have access to that commons equally shared the harmful affect the Tragedy to the Commons. In applying this to human behavior in general, Hardin, claims that human problems have classes and cannot be resolved through science and technology, instead it will just generate another problem. We could apply the Tragedy of the Commons to national parks and pollution. National Parks are open for everyone without limitation such as the Yosemite Valley. As population grows, the park gets crowded and the enjoyment the visitors previously experienced started to degrade thus devalue the importance and significance of the park itself. Hardin had mentioned several options to treat the park as commons to bring back its value and significance to the people as their national park. To mention one was to keep it public property but allocate the right to enter them which obviously will cause conflict to those taxpayers accessing the park and contributed to its construction. The options Hardin had mentioned needs to be given attention to maintain and protect the National Park from exploitation. According to Hardin (1968) pollution was another aspect of the Tragedy of the Commons. Pollution affects the air we breathe and the water that surrounds us. Such as waste and toxic chemicals, oil spills, dumpster. Humans often times failed to recognized the responsibility of preventing pollution and maintaining the air we breathe. This is unpreventable as much as it is uncontrollable. After all this is a free enterprise. The irresponsible thinking of a tax payer that disposing his waste is cheaper than cleaning them makes this problem unpreventable and uncontrollable. Maybe the tax payer has a different perspective than what the law imposed. Passing a law or coercive action such as penalty and prohibition is the only solution. As we all know, the oceans resources are becoming limited as humans continue to treat the oceans as commons and continue to exploit it. According to Hardin they still stick to the philosophy of the commons freedom of the seas and continued to catch vast amount of fish to their own advantage regardless of the fact that some of the marine species are now endangered and overtime will become extinct (Hardin, 1968). In this article Hardin applied the theory of the Tragedy of the Commons to the growth of the population and its effects on the earths limited resources. He claimed technology cannot resolve this problem. It is the participation and cooperation by the society as a whole (people and the government) and not just by the individual itself alone. To achieve positive results means giving up something you enjoy or minimizing the usage. People refuse to give up something they enjoy for the success of the whole. He described the ruinous result of the misguided use of ethics and ignoring the ethics that lies in the word freedom as in freedom of the commons. According to Hardin the rapid of the growth of population if not controlled will result in population exploitation. This will have negative impacts on the earths natural resources such as water, energy and food and will occupy every inch of the earths space. To add to this, it can result in famine, poverty, unemployment, inequalities, and deviance which could result in war. Poverty will result in famine and deviance will result in war, and both will result in death. According to Hardin the continued growth in population will crash the system which supports the whole nation. Although unavoidable, non-endless growth is a threat to the nation. It is the result of the individuals misguided practice of moral principles and techniques. The only way it can be corrected and prevented is the application of social, biological and political theories. Hardin was a bit of an old codger. According to him, Freedom to Breed is Intolerable. Humans who consciously reproduce to gain benefit to its own interest (expand family tree to the next generation, to take advantage of tax breaks or social welfare) but lack they resources to feed them brought additional misery to the nation especially if these children will vanish from the face of the earth because of starvation. According to Hardin, this will be the chastisement for over breeding as they did it to themselves. Ignoring this problem will result in misery. Today the present population is the most difficult and moral problem facing the world. Hardin explains that our society is committed totally to a welfare state which faces another part of the tragedy of the commons if aggravated. The earth is finite and everything that surrounds it is finite. To name a few are biological resources and fuels. Public or private land will eventually become commons with the growth in the population. The continued growth of the population will exploit the environment. Population is exceeding the land and the earths resources. Per Hardin, those who maximize their material consumption contributes to the increase exploitation of the commons and everyone who takes away resources from all other living things on earth. Deforestation, global warming, over-fishing, population exploitation, ozone depletion are all national issues. They are the result of humans irrational and misguided or mistaken use of ethics which became the Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin 1968). Hardin (1968) finally noted that the simple way to analyze and justify the problem of human populations is under the condition of low-population density. As population increase it generates another issue which diverts our attention to another aspect, thus abandoning the commons. There are aspects of the commons that needs more attention. Although some restrictions were already imposed, some still awaits for completion. According to Hardin we still have a long way to go from legalizing the commons in the issue of pleasure such as propagation of sound waves in public places which according to Hardin (1968) pollution of advertising. According to Hardin (1968) we need to recognize the most significant aspect of necessity, the necessity of abandoning the commons in breeding. If ignored, freedom to breed will bring disaster. While there are no solutions to this problem yet, Hardin opposed the idea of an attempt to advertise the use of conscience and apply responsible parenthood. According to Hardin in the long run it will result in anxiety. Touching the subject of commons always involves violation of someones personal freedom. These are violations that are strongly opposed; cries for rights and freedom. While bank robbers were persecuted, these people sheltered into the logic of the commons have freedom to bring universal disaster and free to pursue other goals once they see the necessity of mutual coercion (Hardin 1968). Freedom is the recognition of necessity (Hegel). The only way we can preserve and nurture other and more precious freedoms is by relinquishing the freedom to breed, and that very soon (Hardin 1968), Freedom is the recognition of necessity (Hegel). To put an end to this education must reveal to all the necessity of abandoning the freedom to breed (Hardin). Each of these situations are a social trap, a situation in which conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing its self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior (Myers, 2008, p. 469). The way to solve them is to remove the competition, ‘why do we care who wins’, is a great philosophy to live by. We can change competition and conflict into contact, cooperation, communication and conciliation to transform hostility into harmony (Myers, 2008, p. 504). Bibliography Anderson, C.A. Bushman, B.J. (1997). External validity of trivial experiments: The case of laboratory aggression. Review of General Psychology. Ashton, M., C., Paunonen, S., V., Helmes, E., Jackson, D., N. (1997). Kin altruism, reciprocal altruism, and the big five personality factors. Evolution and Human Behavior. Batson, C. D., Duncan, B. D., Ackerman, P., Buckley, T., Birch, K. (1981). Is empathic emotion a source of altruistic motivation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Batson, C. D., Batson, J. G., Griffitt, C. A., Barrientos, S., Brandt, J. R., Sprengelmeyer, P., Bayly, M. J. (1989). Negative-state relief and the empathy- altruism hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Belot, M. Francesconi, M. (2006). Can Anyone Be the One? Evidence on Mate Selection from Speed Dating. London: Centre for Economic Policy Research, 2006. Buss, D.M. (1992). The Strategies of Human Mating: People Worldwide are Attracted to the Same Qualities in the Opposite Sex. American Scientist. Byrne, D. (1971).The Attraction Paradigm. New York: Academic Press, 1971. Caprara, G.V., Vecchione, M., Barbaranelli, C. Fraley, R.C. (2007). When Likeness Goes With Liking: The Case of Political Preference. Political Psychology. Cash, T. Janda, L.H. (1984). The Eye of the Beholder. Psychology Today. DeBruine, L.M. (2004). Facial Resemblance Increases the Attractiveness of Same-Sex Faces More Than Other-Sex Faces. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Darley, J.M. Batson, C.D. (1973). A study of dispositional variables in helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. DeGaetano, Gloria, and Dave Grossman (1999). Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill. New York: Crown Books. Dovidio. J. F., Allen, J. A., Schroeder, D. A. (1990). Specificity of empathy-induced helping: evidence for altruistic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Finkel, E.J., Eastwick, P.W. (2008). Speed-Dating. Current Directions in Psychological Science. Gangestad, S.W., Simpson, J.A. The Evolution of Human Mating: Trade-Offs and Strategic Pluralism. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 23(2000): 573-587. Gerdes, Louis (2004). Media Violence. Farmington Hills, MI: Greenhaven. Langlois, J.H., Kalakanis, L. Rubenstein, A.J., Larson, A., Hallam, M. Smoot, M. (2000). Maxims or Myths of Beauty? A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review. Psychological Bulletin. Levine, Prosser and Evans (2005) Get reference! Moreland, R.L. Zajonc, R.B. (1982). Exposure Effects in Person Perception: Familiarity, Similarity, and Attraction. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology Moreland, R.L. Beach, S.R. (1992). Exposure Effects in the Classroom: The Development of Affinity Among Students. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. Myers, D. G. (2008). Social Psychology, ninth edition. McGraw-Hill, New York. Passer, M. W., Smith, R. E. (2001). Psychology: Frontiers and applications. New York: McGraw-Hill. Passer, M. W., Smith, R. E. (2007). Psychology: The Science of mind and behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill. Piliavin, J. A., Charng, H. (1990). Altruism: A review of recent theory and research. Annual Review of Sociology. Singh, D. (1995). Female Health, Attractiveness, and Desirability for Relationships: Role Of Breast Symmetry and Waist-to-Hip Ratio. Ethology and Sociobiology. Steyer, James P. (2002). The Other Parent. New York: Atria Books, 2002. Zajonc, R.B. (2001). Mere Exposure: A Gateway to the Subliminal. Current Directions in Psychological Science. Research Papers on Psychology Questions - 25 Points EachEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenCapital PunishmentTrailblazing by Eric AndersonStandardized TestingRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThe Hockey GameThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseHip-Hop is ArtInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesBook Review on The Autobiography of Malcolm X

The Importance Of Providing A Quality-Learning Environment Essay

The Importance Of Providing A Quality-Learning Environment - Essay Example st motivating feature about her is that she is able to orient herself precisely in her classroom, meaning that she can develop knowledge and skills to enable her to pursue her studies further. Underlying concepts and principles associated with working with people MDVI When working with people with such impairments, multidisciplinary teams such as teachers need to consider several principles such as demonstrating a number of academic studies and writing skills that are most consistent to their physical challenge. Like in Sarah’s case, there should be a way to demonstrate an ability to relate a precise approach to the acquisition of new skills that will benefit her in respect to intervention and support strategies (Lee & MacWilliam, 2002). It is important to reflect upon several specialized practical and personal skills connected to mobility, independence, and orientation of different approaches used when working with people with MDVI. However, it is also recommended that one un derstands the ethical principles as they apply to dealing with this group of people. The skills taught should be of good quality and be transferable to wider fields of the context. There must be planning techniques and systems that acknowledge that MDVI individuals deserve better than just being relegated to teacher planning systems that do not consider personal contextual issues in their lives. It should be considered that young MDVI learners have numerous barriers to battle without educators putting more effort in their daily learning. This is the reason why teachers should set a goal to provide a cool learning environment by planning on a flexible individualized system of educating the learners. It helps to enhance the participation of an MDVI individual in learning since it helps the person... Working with a child or individual with multiple disabilities and visual impairments is not as easy as working with a normal person. Like in Sarah’s case, she has coloboma in her right eye and microphthalmia in her left but has a low hearing ability, that is why she uses Makaton to communicate. Students with related disabilities also need special systems such as   In this sense, some of these students come from poor backgrounds and may not afford such implements. This makes learning difficult since they cannot do without them. Further, educators, therapists, and fellow students need to use such tools in order to communicate to them, which may not be so easy. Impairments vary from child to child, and it may be a challenge to know how each child communicates his or her feelings. Failing to be understood, such children may lose motivation and this might affect their learning outcomes.Sarah needs assistance to take in her meals. Other students with multiple disabilities will as well require special equipment or help with feeding. Such assistive technologies like environmental control devices and adapted cups and spoons should be provided to motivate their eating skills.  Teachers sometimes find it hard to take care of such students, so they have to use many opportunities and examples to put in practice functional skills like self-feeding and dressing, within natural, meaningful, and relevant contexts of their daily learning.

Week11 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Week11 - Essay Example The government has to develop constituents within its establishments that have been in charge of state-owned companies. These branches eventually outlive their usefulness thus a disadvantage to the government because then it would have to do away with them. This means many people will lose their jobs thus blame the government for its shortsightedness (The Economist Debate). The limitation to state capitalism is that it can only be productive in certain industries as chosen by the government while the rest remain out. However, this depends on the degree of management as well as the level of interference by the state in the operational matters of the industries involved. All in all, the success or failure of state capitalism depends on the state and countries should know their status before indulging themselves or else the economy would be disastrous. In this case, the private sector would suffer a lot as its fundamental liberties would undergo regression. A country such as China is undergoing fast, economic growth thanks to state capitalism. However, its exposure to fluctuations in the purchasing power of other economies makes it unstable and

Public behavior change message Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Public behavior change message - Research Paper Example Some of these attempts encourage behavior change while others do not. This entirely depends not only on the content but also on the skills in these messages (Browning & Thomas, 2005). Some of The behaviors are encouraged if constructed in terms of their benefits versus their costs. Other people respond to a message when individualized orshaped in a personal process. Communicating behavior change is different from any other instruction method because it targets groups in the community. The strategy used to communicate behavior varies from one group to another. It is reasonable to consider issues like vulnerability, resources message type when communicating behavior to certain groups. It is crucial to have an extensive research and a clear plan for successful communication of behavior change in a community. Various health problems are caused by risk behaviors such as reckless driving, drug abuse and overreacting. Health behavior research helps to modify and maintain positive health behaviors. Therefore, individuals should put an effort to maintain positive behavior change by self-regulation. Many behavior change programs have been established that focus on individuals and the community. Communicating behavior change is a good strategy for dealing with many problems in a community. It is an effective strategy for mobilizing the community on public health outreach programs (Browning & Thomas, 2005). Improved knowledge on behavior change has reduced transmission of HIV/AIDS in the community. Various health-promoting strategies use the communication as an educative method to the society. High-risk groups such as women, drugs abusers and youth need communication strategies. This article discusses strategies that mass media use in promoting beneficial behavior change among individuals. Mass media can be used to influence public behavior directly or indirectly. This is through directly targeting people suffering from public

Ethical And Unethical Factors Of Leadership Management Essay

Ethical And Unethical Factors Of Leadership Management Essay Ethical leadership is important to achieve organizational long term goals. There are some factors that influence the ethical leaders traits in the organization. These factors include leaders morality, trustworthy, honesty, authenticity, and authority. Some unethical and toxic leaders effects organizational objectives. The primary objective of this study is to present the factors that influence ethical and unethical behaviours of leaders in the organizations. Ethical decision making is done by ethical leaders through organizational ethical code of conduct and decision rules. Next, it is followed with organizational top management (effective leaders) importance in implementation of ethical programs to their subordinates. This is also explains the importance of corporate culture to achieve effective ethical leadership. Next part of this study describes Leader Member Exchange (LME) theory. Importance of this theory is also elaborated. This is followed with people and task orientation lea dership roles. Nature of this ethical leadership style is explained with CISCO chairman and CEO, John Chambers. Lastly, this study explains the transformational ethical leadership with five dimensional model of transformational leadership. This study differentiates ethical and unethical behaviours incorporated in transformational leadership style. Organizational ethical behavioural improvement strategies are effectively illustrated at the end. Ethical and Unethical Factors Ethics is a code of moral principles and values that governs a person behavior with respect to what is right or wrong (Daft, 2008). Organization success is mostly depends on different leaders. Leadership in the organization is important to achieve the objectives and goals because they provide direction and process to the employees. Leaders have to establish the ethical standards and moral values in the organization. This will help the followers to change their behaviors. Every leader in the organization should act as ethically. Ethical leader characteristics are identified in the organization based on some set of factors. These factors include leaders moral behavior, vision, communication, collective environment, and program (task) procedures (Daft, 2008). These factors should implant with organizational social and ethical values. Organizational leaders with these ethical characteristics are identified as ethical leader. The factors that influences the unethical leadership is due to growing complex of the business, increase speed of information flow, and augmented pressure from top management about employee performance (Toor and Ofori, 2009). These factors influence the ethical leader to be act as unethical. Leadership is to act purposively and ethically according to the organizational needs. Toor and Ofori (2009) said that collective components of integrity, ethical standards, and strong relationship with employees are most important characteristics of the ethical leaders. Ethical leaders in the organization are strong moral persons and managers. Strong moral persons have characteristics of honesty, trustworthiness and reliable to others. When it comes to moral manager, they are very open to their followers by explicitly talks about the ethical standards and empower employees to achieve goals in the organization. Toor and Ofori (2009) have given some dimensions to the ethical leadership. They are mo rality and fairness, role clarification, and power sharing. These dimensions are adopted from fellow multi cultural leaders behaviour. One more important factor that influences the ethical or unethical leadership behaviour is decision making process. Ethical leaders have vision to achieve long term goals of an organization. This is key factor that influence the decision making process. It means that effective ethical leaders are not interested in short term goals. This kind of thinking helps the leaders to maintain good relationships between employees. This will achieve the effective communication between the employees. In order to implement this kind of ethical bevaiours, leadership requires high motivation, influence process strategies and self transformation of ethical standard conduct. Most of the authors research works suggested that there is special importance on organizational top senior executives because these people have ability to lead the company in ethical way (Athure and Melea, 2006). Most of the employees in the organization believe that their leaders are more ethically and honest. These kinds of beliefs bring some impact on the corporate culture of an organization. It means that organizational code of ethics should be incorporate with corporate culture (Athure and Melea, 2006). This can be done through ethical leadership because most of the employees in the organization are motivated by these ethical leaders. Ethical organization is build through the support of top management (Carlson et al., 1995). It means that the top management should support the local ethical leaders to establish ethical organization. For instance, McDonald has established ethical code of conduct through companies CEO and senior management because they are effective ethical leaders of that company (Carlson et al., 1995). These senior management and CEO have effective communication with their subordinates to achieve ethical requirement into new employee ethical training programs (Carlson et al., 1995). In order to build ethical behaviours, company has started some ethical programs such as ethical training to change internal values of employees, reorganization of ethical violations and finally increase awareness on organizational ethical code of conduct among the employees. This kind of organizational ethical behaviours can be constructed only through effective and efficient ethical leader. Effective ethical leadership is measured through two key factors. Those are degree of empowerment of employees by their leaders and identify leaders motivation and character towards organizational objectives. Leader Member Exchange (LME) Leader Member Exchange (LME) theory is implemented for ethical leaders to achieve ethical leadership behavior. This theory will provide good relationships between the leaders and subordinates. This helps the leaders to clearly specify job roles, task, and role ambiguity in effective manner. The relationship between LME and ethics is to respond ethically with employees in the organization when they have any ambiguities in the workplace. There two major leadership roles in the organization. They are people and task orientation leadership roles. Ethical leadership in people orientation role has mutual trust and more openness between the leaders and employees (Mendonca and Kanugo, 2007). Job roles and tasks are effectively defined in task orientation role by the ethical leader (Mendonca and Kanugo, 2007). For instance, John Chambers who is the chairman and CEO of CISCO systems. Chambers used to use the following statement. That is We want to create the greatest company in the history and We want to change the world (Chambers, 2009). This is kind of leadership represents people orientation leadership styles because Chambers is uses to use a word called WE. This represents collaborative work through people orientation leadership style. Chambers is achieving task orientation leadership through people orientation leadership style. This is also represents transformational leadership style as well. Transactional and Transformational Leadership According to Kanungo (2001), authenticity and authority of the leadership behavior is expanded through leaders moral standard conduct and integrity. Most of the transactional leaders are self centered, untrustworthy, more authorities, and manipulative (Toor and Ofori, 2009). According to Toor and Ofori (2009), transformational leaders have different ethical bevaviours such as moral character, strong concern for self and others, and ethical values. These ethical values are deeply manipulated with organization vision. Ethical leaders are very important to the organization to achieve its long term goals effectively. According to the recent research works, the transformational or charismatic leaders ethical behaviour reaches to higher moral standards (Kanungo, 2001). These kinds of ethical behaviours are contrasted by transactional leaders. Transactional leaders establish control strategies to influence the followers. When it comes to transformational leaders, they use empowering techniq ues rather than control strategies. These empowering strategies demonstrate exemplary behaviours, helps to increase confidence, provide more resources to accomplish the objectives of the followers (Kanungo, 2001). These kinds of empowering strategies will improve human conduct and ethical objective of the leader as well as his/her followers (Kanungo, 2001). Some transactional leaders have consensus on organizational rules, rights, and responsibilities. This kind of behaviours influences the followers ethically because these are collectivistic transactional behaviours. According to Kanungo (2001), the ethical nature of the leaders behavior is judged based on three factors. They are leader motivation, apparent behaviour, and social context where ethical behaviours are presented. Leaders should improve their motivation, behavioural strategies and techniques, and understand the social situations in the organizations. Hence, these three factors keep the leaders ethically. Leaders have to be show high ethical standards on their behaviours and actions that should be followed by the employees in the organization. Effective organizational governance can be achieved through efficient ethical leadership (Toor and Ofori, 2009). There are also some unethical leaders in which they exploit organizational management loophole to accomplish their desires. However, leaders ethical or unethical behaviors changes according to the organizational changes. However, leaders with highest social responsibility are more ethical to the organization (Toor and Ofori, 2009). Servant, transformational and spiritual leaderships are more ethical to the organizations because these leaders are very honest, fair, helping to their subordinates, behaving ethically, and having more motivation towards work and employees in the organization (Toor and Ofori, 2009). Bass and avolio (Tervino and Brown (2004), 2000) has developed five dimensions of transformational leadership. They are individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, idealized influence, and inspirational motivation. Idealized influence is a first dimension that contains high moral values. These moral values are transformed to subordinates without any self interest of the transformative leaders. The outcome of this dimension could be employee work satisfaction, high job performance, and organizational commitment. The leader is used to establish collectivistic direction in the followers rather than selfish manner. This will help the followers to increase self efficacy. When this idealized influence is mixed with inspirational motivation then it represents the charismatic leadership. In third dimension, leaders motivate the followers through clear future goals (Baucus, 2005). This is used to establish an attractive and optimistic visualization of the organization in followers perspective. The next dimension is intellectual stimulation. Leaders are used to accept challenges with clear directions. Intellectual stimulation in transformational leadership is effective because leaders creates effective work environment that the followers can able to accept the challenges. Leaders should have listening skills to improve collectivistic performance in the organization otherwise the team get into conflict situation. This conflict situation has occurred due to misunderstanding between leaders and followers. These kinds of situations are avoided with transformational leadership. The last dimension is individualized identification (Baucus, 2005). It is most important dimension that leaders should perform effectively to improve collaborative work environment. This dimension helps leader to identify individual subordinate skills but leaders should have some time to observe these skill set of the followers (Armstrong, 2008). Effectiveness and efficiency of transformati onal leadership is depends on leaders behavior. It is represented in below showed figure. This figure contains three input values to transformational leader in which instrumental and terminal values are ethical values and undesirable values are unethical values (Armstrong, 2008). Transformational leadership produces either ethical or unethical behaviour based on these three input values (Armstrong, 2008). Each and every task of the transformational leaders is represented with above discussed five dimensional transformational leadership models. Ethical leaders are more ethical to their organizations because these leaders are moral persons with honest and trust worthy characteristic. These leaders can do anything for their subordinates. These ethical leaders are used to perform right thing in their professional and usual life. Ethical leaders used to make decision based on organizational ethical values and decision rules. Ethical leaders are more significant social person in the organization because they have very clear objectives and more ethical to their followers. According to Tervino and Brown (2004), ethical leaders are come under the category of transformational leadership style because they are highly motivate and consistent with organizational objectives. Tervino and Brown(2004) has define the relationship between leadership and organizational ethical conduct based on two factors. They are social learning and social exchange. Leaders become role models for their followers if they are ethically embedded with organizat ional ethical conduct. This kind of relationship is represented with social learning because followers are motivated through ethical leaders. Even more, ethical leaders actions are very clear to the organizations as well as his/her subordinates. Eventually, ethical leaders maintained social exchange relationship through leaders ethical values such as trustworthiness, maintaining collaborative workplace, perceived fairness and moral behavior (Grojean et al., 2004). Hence, ethical leaders are used to help their subordinates by differentiating the ethical and unethical conduct of an organization values. According to Tervino and Brown (2004), leaders power and control is important to make effective ethical decisions but it is used to maintain at lower levels. Improvement of Organizational ethics Organization can improve the ethical behaviour through transformational leadership. Triveno and brown (2004) has suggested five dimensional transformational leadership. This model clearly differentiates ethical and unethical behaviours of transformational leaders. Even transformational leaders are highly moral persons and motivated to organizational ethical values. This transformational leaders highly implements collectivistic team work through better communication. Even information flow between ethical leaders and followers are very effective. People and task orientation leadership is also effective in the organization to develop effective ethical leadership because the leaders are more legitimate and open to their subordinates. And even these leadership styles have clear job role and objectives. Ethical leaders should have some certain characteristics which are discussed in above. Organization top management should implement ethical training programs (Athure and Melea, 2006). Organ izational ethical values are integrated with all employees through these training programs (Athure and Melea, 2006). Organization should follow Leader Member Exchange (LME) theory to effectively implement ethical relationship between leaders and subordinates. Conclusion: Leaders have to take initiatives to develop ethical practices in the organizations. Organizational leaders not only create ethical code of conduct but also integrate these ethical standards into subordinates. Leader has to show some examples of ethical leaders to their fellow subordinates that build an ethical organizational context. This study differentiates transformational and transactional leadership by using transformational five dimensional model. Factors that affect leadership behavior have to provide solutions to ethical behaviours.

Freedom :: essays research papers

Freedom By definition, censorship is the suppression of words, images, or ideas that are â€Å"offensive,† it happens whenever some people succeed in imposing their personal, political, or moral values on others. Internet censorship is a controversial issue that requires careful thought in order to have a well-formed opinion. It has become a hot topic in the Media and countries that are currently seeking this type of censorship. Many believe censoring the Internet is a violation of our rights. Perhaps, by sharing my thoughts and ideas I can shed some light on this subject. Internet censorship and the censorship tool known as labeling is unrealistic and unnecessary because it is a parent’s responsibility to know what their children are accessing and how to explain any difficult situations that may arise because of their children’s Internet use. Labeling is a type of rating system that informs the viewer what type on contact lies ahead and is certainly not effective in screening people who are accessing a page. Many censorship classifications systems like labeling are now in use. In many countries the use of these systems is currently under scrutiny to see if they are necessary or even effective. This type of censorship is presumably intended to keep questionable material out of the reach of children. The way labeling works is on the first page of a domain; it informs the user of the type of material that is about to be accessed. To continue, one must agree to view the page by clicking the enter button. If the editor of each web page were forced to rate their sites, what or where would the criteria come from? Furthermore, if it was decided an outside source should rate each new page, how could they possibly sort through the thousands of new sites per week, or even the billions of WebPages that already exist. Internet Access Controls Without Censorship, also known as PICS, was developed for the purpose of blocking access to websites containing potentially harmful material on the Internet within government, schools, libraries, and workplaces. Their main objective is to develop a censorship system that can filter out material that is specified by the user. The purpose of a system like this is primarily to protect children. The problem with this type of censorship is this: where there’s a will there is a way, and I believe this holds true in the case. Freedom :: essays research papers Freedom By definition, censorship is the suppression of words, images, or ideas that are â€Å"offensive,† it happens whenever some people succeed in imposing their personal, political, or moral values on others. Internet censorship is a controversial issue that requires careful thought in order to have a well-formed opinion. It has become a hot topic in the Media and countries that are currently seeking this type of censorship. Many believe censoring the Internet is a violation of our rights. Perhaps, by sharing my thoughts and ideas I can shed some light on this subject. Internet censorship and the censorship tool known as labeling is unrealistic and unnecessary because it is a parent’s responsibility to know what their children are accessing and how to explain any difficult situations that may arise because of their children’s Internet use. Labeling is a type of rating system that informs the viewer what type on contact lies ahead and is certainly not effective in screening people who are accessing a page. Many censorship classifications systems like labeling are now in use. In many countries the use of these systems is currently under scrutiny to see if they are necessary or even effective. This type of censorship is presumably intended to keep questionable material out of the reach of children. The way labeling works is on the first page of a domain; it informs the user of the type of material that is about to be accessed. To continue, one must agree to view the page by clicking the enter button. If the editor of each web page were forced to rate their sites, what or where would the criteria come from? Furthermore, if it was decided an outside source should rate each new page, how could they possibly sort through the thousands of new sites per week, or even the billions of WebPages that already exist. Internet Access Controls Without Censorship, also known as PICS, was developed for the purpose of blocking access to websites containing potentially harmful material on the Internet within government, schools, libraries, and workplaces. Their main objective is to develop a censorship system that can filter out material that is specified by the user. The purpose of a system like this is primarily to protect children. The problem with this type of censorship is this: where there’s a will there is a way, and I believe this holds true in the case.